“Oil prices are dominating headlines as geopolitical tensions strain the flow of crude through key global chokepoints. Yet the bigger squeeze in energy markets is unfolding further downstream in the world's refineries, where crude is converted into the fuels that power the global economy.
A series of disruptions -- from the Iran war and Ukrainian attacks on Russian energy infrastructure to China's restrictions on fuel exports -- has taken millions of barrels of refined products off global markets and left customers scrambling to locate alternative supplies.
As a result, refining margins, the difference between the cost of crude and the value of the fuels produced from it, have surged.
"Refining margins remain elevated because every additional barrel of product has become significantly more valuable than every additional barrel of crude," said Sumit Ritolia, lead analyst for refining supply and modeling at Kpler.
With Strait of Hormuz flows unlikely to normalize soon and repairs to Gulf refineries targeted by Iranian attacks expected to take months, the market could remain tight and keep margins elevated for months. While for major oil companies, the extraordinary margins are boosting earnings, for consumers they mean higher prices at the pump; the U.S. average gasoline price topped $4 a gallon this year, up from $3.16 a year ago.
The U.S. 3-2-1 crack spread -- a widely watched industry benchmark that measures the value of turning three barrels of crude oil into two barrels of gasoline and one barrel of diesel -- surged above $70 last month. It's typically in the teens.
Despite the turmoil caused by the Iran war and the near-closure of Hormuz squeezing supplies and constraining exports, refiners have managed to secure enough crude to keep plants running, cushioned by emergency releases from strategic reserves and a sweeping reshuffle of global trade flows.
Asian refiners have replaced some lost Middle Eastern barrels with Atlantic Basin supplies and volumes from emergency inventories, while remaining Gulf supplies have continued to reach buyers via longer, more expensive routes involving ship-to-ship transfers and detours around southern Africa.
Robust U.S. domestic crude production, supplemented by imports from Canada, Venezuela and elsewhere, has provided American refiners with sufficient feedstock. In Europe, refiners have replaced some Middle Eastern barrels with supplies from the U.S., Kazakhstan, the North Sea, West Africa and Latin America, while some Saudi crude continues to reach the region via the Red Sea.
Spain's Repsol, for example, turned to cheaper North American and Mediterranean crude after competition from Southeast Asian buyers drove up prices for Atlantic Basin barrels from Brazil and West Africa, according to the company's director of value chain optimization, Juan Carlos Ramirez.
Refineries have a physical limit on how much crude they can process. Many are already running at very high utilization rates to meet demand while compensating for disruptions in the Middle East and Russia, leaving little spare capacity. The strain comes after years of refinery closures in the U.S. and Europe because of high operating costs and strategic shifts toward low-carbon production.
"Refinery utilization above 90-95% simply means there is very little operational flexibility left," said Kpler's Ritolia. This means even a single outage could have a disproportionate impact on supplies.
Beyond the Middle East, traditional exporters of fuel like China and Russia also face constraints.
Russian refinery output has dropped to its lowest level in more than two decades following sustained Ukrainian drone attacks on refining infrastructure this year, according to Kpler data. Moscow, historically a major diesel exporter, has imposed a temporary export ban on the fuel, tightening supplies to Europe.
The supply squeeze has shifted across geographies and products over time. When Iran effectively closed the Strait of Hormuz, refiners increased jet fuel production amid fears of a global shortage. But producing more jet fuel came at the expense of diesel, just as Russia imposed export constraints and the summer driving season started in the Northern Hemisphere.
China presents another dynamic; it has ample refining capacity but government export quotas aimed at shoring up domestic energy security have limited overseas sales of gasoline, diesel and jet fuel. That has pushed other Asian refiners to run harder and raised refining margins, said Alan Gelder, Wood Mackenzie's vice president of refining, chemicals and oil markets.
Globally, margins are expected to remain high for the remainder of the year, with seasonal maintenance beginning in September expected to tighten the market even further.” [1]
1. Oil Squeeze at Its Tightest in Refineries. Petroni, Giulia; Whittaker, Adam. Wall Street Journal, Eastern edition; New York, N.Y.. 12 Aug 2026: B1.